Chalcogenide compounds with a clay-like cation-exchange capacity and methods of use

ABSTRACT

Chalcogenide compounds with cation exchange capability and methods of using the compounds are described. Compounds of the general formula A 2x M x Sn 3-x S 6  are described wherein x is 0.1-0.95, A is Li + , Na + , K +  or Rb +  and M is Mn 2+ , Mg 2+ , Zn 2+ , Fe 2+ , Co 2+  or Ni 2+ . Compounds of the general formula H 2x M x Sn 3-x S 6  are also described wherein x is 0.1-0.95 and M=Mn 2+ , Mg 2+ , Zn 2+ , Fe 2+ , Co 2+  or Ni 2+ . The compounds can be layered compounds. The compounds are capable of intercalation of Cs + , Sr 2+ , Hg 2+ , Pb 2+ , Cd 2+ , and/or Ag +  ions. A process involving contacting the compounds with a solution comprising one or more ions including Cs + , Sr 2+ , Hg 2+ , Pb 2+ , Cd 2+ , and/or Ag +  is also provided. The one or more ions can be removed from the solution by the compounds. A process comprising contacting compounds of the general formula A 2x M x Sn 3-x S 6  with a solution containing UO 2   2+ , Th 4+  or Pu 4+  ions is also described.

This application claims the benefit of Provisional U.S. PatentApplication Ser. No. 60/978,890, filed on Oct. 7, 2007, which isincorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos.DMR-0443785 and DMR-0801855 awarded by the National Science Foundation.The government has certain rights in the invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to chalcogenide compounds and tomethods of using the compounds.

BACKGROUND

Clays, zeolites and titanosilicates are used as inorganic ion exchangematerials. These materials are excellent adsorbents for cesium andstrontium, but they display low selectivity and binding affinity formercury.

Layered chalcogenides with ion exchange properties remain scarce. Thematerials that are known are mainly limited to alkali ion-intercalatedtransition metal dichalcogenides A_(x)MQ₂ (A=alkali ion; M=earlytransition metal, Q=S, Se, Te). However, such materials are not suitablefor practical applications as ion exchangers, due to their thermodynamicand hydrolytic instability.

Accordingly, there still exists a need for improved ion exchangematerials.

SUMMARY

According to a first embodiment, a compound of the general formulaA_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ is provided wherein x is 0.1-0.95, A is selectedfrom the group consisting of Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, and Rb⁺ and M is selectedfrom the group consisting of Mn²⁺, Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, Fe²⁺, Co²⁺ and Ni²⁺.

According to a second embodiment, a process is provided which comprisescontacting a compound as set forth above with a solution comprising oneor more ions selected from the group consisting of Cs⁺, Sr⁺, Hg²⁺, Pb²⁺,Cd²⁺, Ag⁺ and combinations thereof.

According to a third embodiment, a process is provided which comprisescontacting a composition as set forth above with a solution comprisingone or more ions selected from the group consisting of UO₂ ²⁺, Th⁴⁺,Pu⁴⁺ and combinations thereof.

According to a third embodiment, a compound of the general formulaH_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ is provided wherein x is 0.1-0.95 and M isselected from the group consisting of Mn²⁺, Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, Fe²⁺, Co²⁺ andNi²⁺.

These and other features of the present teachings are set forth herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The drawings described below are for illustration purposes only. Thedrawings are not intended to limit the scope of the present teachings inany way. The patent or application file contains at least one drawingexecuted in color. Copies of this patent or patent applicationpublication with color drawing(s) will be provided by the Office uponrequest and payment of the necessary fee.

FIG. 1A is a schematic showing part of the layer framework ofK_(1.9)Mn_(0.95)Sn_(2.05)S₆ viewed down the c-axis wherein the Mn—Sn andS atoms are represented by green and yellow balls respectively.

FIG. 1B is a view of the structure depicted in FIG. 1A, with apolyhedral representation of the layers, along the c-axis wherein highlydisordered K⁺ ions shown as gray balls are hosted in the interlayerspace.

FIG. 2 shows X-ray diffraction patterns for pristine compounds of theformula K_(2x)Mn_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (x=0.1-0.95) and the cesium and strontiumexchanged products of these compounds.

FIGS. 3A and 3B are bar charts showing Cs⁺ uptake (FIG. 3A) and Sr²⁺uptake (FIG. 3B) by K_(2x)Mn_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (x=0.95) as a function of pHwherein the dashed lines indicate the maximum cesium or strontiumcapacity.

FIG. 4 is a graph showing PXRD patterns for pristine compounds of theformula K_(2x)Mn_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (x=0.1-0.95) and the Hg²⁺, Ag⁺, Cd²⁺ andPb²⁺ exchanged compounds wherein the inset shows an enlarged view of the(003) peaks.

FIG. 5 is a graph showing equilibrium data for Hg²⁺ ion exchange.

FIG. 6 is a graph showing equilibrium data for Pb²⁺ ion exchange.

FIGS. 7A and 7A are bar charts showing the variation with pH of thedistribution coefficients for Hg²⁺ (FIG. 7A) and Pb²⁺ (FIG. 7B) exchangeof compounds of the formula (1).

FIGS. 8A and 8B are graphs showing the kinetics for Hg²⁺ (FIG. 8A) andPb²⁺ (FIG. 8B) ion-exchange of compounds of the formula (1).

FIG. 9 is a bar chart showing Hg²⁺/Pb²⁺ distribution coefficients asfunction of volume to mass ratio determined for competitive ion exchangeexperiments with simultaneous presence of Hg (21.6 ppm) and Pb (18.6ppm).

FIG. 10 is a Mid-IR spectrum of the solid acid of the formulaH_(0.4)Mn_(0.2)Sn_(2.8)S₆ {i.e., compound (2)}.

FIG. 11 is a PXRD of compound (2) vs. SnS₂.

FIG. 12A shows PXRD patterns for pristine compound (2) and Hg²⁺,Ag⁺-exchanged materials wherein the inset shows an enlarged view of the(001) peaks of these patterns.

FIG. 12B shows the Mid-IR spectra of pristine compound (2) and Ag⁺ andHg²⁺ exchanged materials wherein the H—S peak present in the spectrum ofcompound (2) can be seen to have disappeared in the spectra of Ag⁺ andHg²⁺ exchanged materials as highlighted by the dashed oval.

FIG. 12C is a solid state NIRJUV-Vis spectra for pristine compound (2),SnS₂, Hg²⁺ and Ag⁺-exchanged materials.

FIG. 13 is a graph showing equilibrium data for Hg²⁺ ion-exchange ofcompound (2).

FIG. 14 is a graph showing the kinetics for Hg²⁺ ion-exchange ofcompounds of the formula (1).

FIG. 15A shows X-ray diffraction patterns for pristine KMS-1 and itsuranyl-exchanged product.

FIG. 15B shows TGA (N₂ atmosphere, heating rate ˜10° C./min) and DTGcurves for the uranyl-exchanged product.

FIG. 15C is a Mid-IR spectra of KMS-1 and its uranyl-exchanged analoguewherein the peak assigned to the anti-symmetric stretching of the uranylcation is highlighted by drawing a circle.

FIG. 15D is a solid-state UV-Vis diffuse reflectance spectrum of the UO₂²⁺-exchanged compound.

FIGS. 16A and 16B are U4f_(7/2) (FIG. 16A) and U4f_(5/2) (FIG. 16B)spectra with the deconvolution of the corresponding peaks into threecomponents.

FIGS. 17A and 17B are equilibrium data for uranyl-absorption by KMS-1(pH˜3-4, V:m=1000 mL/g, contact time 12 h) wherein the red lineindicates the fitting of the data with the Langmuir model (FIG. 17A) anda graph showing the percentage of uranium removal versus the initial pHof the solutions (V:m=1000 mL/g, contact time 12 h) (FIG. 17B).

FIGS. 18A-18D are graphs showing the dependence of UO₂ ²⁺ removalcapacity of KMS-1 on the excess of (a), (b) NaCl, (c) NaNO₃ and (d)CaCl₂ wherein the V:m ratio and contact time for these experiments were1000 mL/g and 12 h respectively.

FIGS. 19A and 19B are kinetics for UO₂ ²⁺ removal from distilled water(initial U concentration ˜570 ppb, pH˜3.2, V:m=1000 mL/g) (FIG. 19A) andportable water (initial U concentration ˜970 ppb, pH˜3.6, V:m=1000 mL/g)(FIG. 19B) wherein the portable water sample contained also large excessof Na⁺ (10.7 ppm), Ca²⁺ (32.9 ppm) and Mg²⁺ (8.5 ppm).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

For the purposes of this disclosure and unless otherwise specified, “a”or “an” means “one or more.”

As used herein, “about” will be understood by persons of ordinary skillin the art and will vary to some extent depending upon the context inwhich it is used. If there are uses of the term which are not clear topersons of ordinary skill in the art, given the context in which it isused, “about” will mean up to plus or minus 10% of the particular term.

Layered chalcogenide materials of the general formulaA_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (x=0.1-0.95; A=Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Rb⁺; M=Mn²⁺, Mg²⁺,Zn²⁺, Fe²⁺, Co²⁺ or Ni²⁺) are provided. These materials made ofinexpensive, non-toxic elements, can be prepared on a multi-gram scalewith solid state or hydrothermal synthesis and are remarkably air,water, and thermally stable. The layered chalcogenide materialsdescribed herein exhibit clay-like cation-exchange capacity. The layeredchalcogenide materials described herein also exhibit facile and highlyselective ion-exchange properties for cations of great environmentalconcern such as Cs⁺ and Sr²⁺, the radioactive isotopes of which are themajor contaminants in the fission product of nuclear wastes. The layeredchalcogenide materials described herein are also extremely capable toclean the water from soft heavy metal ions (e.g. Hg²⁺, Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, Ag⁺),which constitute a serious health threat for humans and other species.In addition, solid chalcogenic acids H_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (M=Mn²⁺,Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, Fe²⁺, Co²⁺ or Ni²⁺; x=0.1-0.95), such asH_(0.4)M_(0.2)Sn_(2.8)S₆, are described, which are effective for theremediation of Hg²⁺ and Ag⁺ as well as exhibiting selectivity for theseions over Cd²⁺ and Pb²⁺.

According to some embodiments, A is K⁺. According to some embodiments, Ais K⁺ and x=0.5-0.95. Compounds of the following general formulae areprovided:

K_(2X)Mn_(X)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (x=0.5-0.95) (KMS-1);

K_(2X)Mg_(X)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (x=0.5-0.95) (KMS-2);

K_(2X)Zn_(X)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (x=0.5-0.95) (KMS-3);

K_(2X)Fe_(X)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (x=0.5-0.95) (KMS-4);

K_(2X)Co_(X)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (x=0.5-0.95) (KMS-5); and

K_(2X)Ni_(X)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (x=0.5-0.95) (KMS-6).

Clays and zeolites are characteristic examples of inorganic ion exchangematerials. Metal chalcogenides with layered structures and loosely boundinterlayer cations could also exhibit similar properties to oxides butwith unique attributes. The presence of the soft chalcogen ligands caninduce innate selectivity for soft (or relatively soft) metal ions suchas Cs⁺, Sr²⁺, or heavy metal ions such as Hg²⁺, Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, and Ag⁺, andagainst hard ions such as Na²⁺ or Ca²⁺, a property which could beparticularly useful for ion discriminations in nuclear wastes orwastewater with heavy metal ion contaminants.

Layered chalcogenides with ion exchange properties remain scarce. Thematerials that are known are mainly limited to alkali ion-intercalatedtransition metal dichalcogenides A_(x)MQ₂ (A=alkali ion; M=earlytransition metal, Q=S, Se, Te). However, such materials are not suitablefor practical applications as ion exchangers, due to their thermodynamicand hydrolytic instability.

Compounds of the formula A_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (x=0.1-0.95; A=Li⁺, Na⁺,K⁺ or Rb⁺; M=Mn²⁺, Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, Fe²⁺, Co²⁺ or Ni²⁺) and compounds of theformula H_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (M=Mn²⁺, Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, Fe²⁺, Co^(2+ or Ni)²⁺; x=0.1-0.95) have various advantages compared to known adsorbents.Certain of these advantages are described below.

-   -   a) These compounds constitute unique examples of universal ion        exchangers. For example, the compound K_(2x)Mn_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆        (x=0.1-0.95) used alone may be highly effective in various        remediation processes that usually need two or more different        materials. This can be very important from the economical point        of view. Clays, zeolites and titanosilicates are excellent        adsorbents for cesium and strontium, but they display low        selectivity and binding affinity for mercury.    -   b) These compounds display remarkable selectivity for Cs⁺ and        Sr²⁺ over hard ions like Na⁺ or H⁺. They are also rare examples        of inorganic ion exchangers with significant exchange capacity        for Sr²⁺ in acidic environments.    -   c) These compounds can be prepared with a low cost and        environmentally friendly synthetic procedure and they are        remarkably stable in water and air. They display high exchange        capacity for a variety of soft heavy metal ions such as Hg²⁺,        Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺ and Ag⁺. Thus, these materials exhibit distinctive        advantages over thiol-functionalized adsorbents, which are        prepared with a high cost synthesis (due to the use of expensive        organic surfactants, organic solvents and organosilane) and        display air/water instability arising from the tendency of the        thiol-groups to be oxidized to disulfide ones. In addition, most        thiol-functionalized adsorbents display low adsorption capacity        for lead or cadmium;    -   d) The solid chalcogenic acids H_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (M=Mn²⁺,        Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, Fe²⁺; x=0.1-0.95) display an amazing selectivity and        remediation capacity for Hg²⁺ reducing Hg²⁺ concentrations even        10 times less than the limit for the drinking water. Unlike        mesoporous thiol-functionalized materials (mercury adsorbents        that lose up to half of their capacity after one regeneration        cycle), compounds of the formula H_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (M=Mn²⁺,        Mg²⁺, Zn⁺, Fe²⁺; x=0.1-0.95), such as H_(0.3)M_(0.15)Sn_(2.85)S₆        can be easily regenerated and reused with only a slightly loss        of their exchange capacity. In addition, compounds such as        H_(0.4)M_(0.2)Sn_(2.8)S₆ display remarkable mercury capture in        highly acidic media where most known adsorbents are inactive,        especially the oxides.

The synthesis of compounds of the general formula A_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆,where x=0.1-0.95; A=Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺ or Rb⁺; and M=Mn²⁺, Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, Fe²⁺,Co^(2+ or Ni) ²⁺ can be achieved with various methods as furtherdescribed below. An attractive method of synthesis of these compoundsfrom an economical point of view is hydrothermal synthesis involving thereaction:

Compounds of the formula A_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ crystallize in thecentrosymmetric trigonal space group R-3m. Their architecture belongs toa common structure type (CdI₂ structure type) adopted, among others, bylayered double hydroxides. The layer is built up by edge-sharing “M, Sn”S₆ octahedra with Mn and Sn atoms occupying the same crystallographicposition and all sulfur ligands being three-coordinated as shown inFIG. 1. The A⁺ ions intercalated between the layers are positionallydisordered.

Compounds of the formula A_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ may be used as ionexchangers. Exemplary test results for compounds of the formulaK_(2x)Mn_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (x=0.1-0.95) {i.e., compounds (1)} are providedin Table 1. The ion exchange of compounds (1) with Cs⁺ and Sr²⁺ istopotactic as can be seen from FIG. 2 and is accompanied by an oxidationof Mn^(II) to Mn^(III) possibly induced by the atmospheric oxygen:

This oxidation was confirmed by single crystal diffraction analysis ofthe Cs-exchanged product, X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy data for Cs⁺and Sr²⁺ exchanged materials and EDS analytical data which is shown inTable 1.

TABLE 1 Selected data for K_(2x)Mn_(x)Sn_(3−x)S₆ (x = 0.1-0.95) (1) andits Cs⁺ and Sr²⁺ exchanged analogues d₀₀₃(Å)/ Mn2p binding energy(eV)/Compound hydration c-axis (Å) Mn oxidation state K_(2x)Mn_(x)Sn_(3−x)S₆8.53/2 25.59-25.98 640.4/Mn²⁺ (x = 0.5-0.95) 8.66/5Sr_(0.5x)Mn_(x)Sn_(3−x)S₆  11.78/5.0 35.34 641.4/Mn³⁺ (x = 0.5-0.95)Cs_(x)Mn_(x)Sn_(3−x)S₆   9.02/1.8 27.05 641.1/Mn³⁺ (x = 0.5-0.95)

Cs⁺ and Sr²⁺-remediation properties of various compounds of the formula(1) were also tested. Selected results are presented in Table 2. Themaximum Cs⁺ and Sr²⁺ exchange capacities of the compounds (1) were foundto be 1.66 mmol/g and 0.88 mmol/g respectively. The cesium exchangecapacity of compounds (1) compares well with that of the most efficientCs adsorbents (e.g. zeolites and zirconium-titanium silicates exhibitingcapacities 1.86-4.1 mmol/g). The observed capacity of compounds (1) forSr²⁺ also compares well with that of best Sr²⁺ ion exchangers (1.0-2.0mmol/gr) reported. The maximum distribution coefficient K_(d) value forCs⁺ ion exchange was found to be 1.59×10⁴ mL/g which also compares wellto those of the most efficient Cs⁺ ion exchangers. The maximum K_(d)value for the Sr²⁺ ion exchange was found to be 1.58×10⁵ mL/g which isamong the highest reported in the literature for Sr²⁺ adsorbents.

Competitive Cs⁺—Na⁺ and Sr²⁺—Na⁺ ion exchange experiments revealed highselectivity of compounds (1) for Cs⁺ or Sr²⁺. This is apparent whenlooking the distribution coefficient values of cesium or strontium whichare much higher than those of sodium (Table 2). This selectivity ofcompounds (1) for Cs⁺ or Sr²⁺ against Na⁺ is highly desired for nuclearwaste remediation, since the waste water usually contains very high Na⁺concentrations.

The competitive experiments also included Sr²⁺/Cs⁺. The initial Sr²⁺ andCs⁺ concentrations were 5×10⁻² and 6.9×10⁻² mM respectively. Theseexperiments were performed with the simultaneous presence of Na⁺ (1.1mM), Ca²⁺ (2.8×10⁻¹ mM) and Mg²⁺ (1.5×10⁻¹ mM) in an alkalineenvironment (i.e., at a pH of about 11), aiming to simulate alkalinewaste solutions where Cs⁺ and Sr²⁺ coexist with a number of competitivecations of much higher concentration. Various experiments were conductedby applying different volume to mass ratios. Representative results arepresented in Table 2. The K_(d) ^(Cs) and K_(d) ^(Sr) values obtainedrevealed that the K_(2x)Mn_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (x=0.5-0.95) materials displayhigher selectivity for Cs⁺ over Sr²⁺ only at a volume to mass ratio ofabout 238 mL/g. It is interesting that for larger ratios a dramaticincrease in the selectivity of compounds (1) for Sr²⁺ over Cs⁺ wasobserved. For example, the K_(d) ^(Sr) was found to be about 9.7 timeshigher than the K_(d) ^(Cs) at a volume to mass ratio of about 990 mL/g.An increase of the K_(d) ^(Sr) as the volume to mass ratio is increasedhas been also observed in the case of titanates and pharmacosiderites.

Overall, the results of these competitive experiments revealed that forpractical applications, compounds (1) are more suitable as Sr²⁺adsorbents than as Cs⁺ adsorbents, since these compounds can efficientlysequester Sr²⁺ from relatively large volumes of water solutions. Incontrast, only in the absence of Sr²⁺ do compounds (1) appear to becapable of specific Cs⁺ capture.

TABLE 2 Selected data for Cs⁺ and Sr²⁺ ion exchange experiments.Exchanging Cations Cs⁺ + Na⁺ Sr²⁺ + Na⁺ Sr²⁺ + Ca²⁺ + Cs⁺ Sr²⁺ (1:11)(1:39) Mg²⁺ + Na⁺ + Cs⁺ Initial 470.3 48.6 157.5 4.6 478.6 (Cs) 121.84(Sr) 3.70 (Mg) Concentration   920 (Na) 1231.3 (Na) 11.14 (Ca) (ppm)4.59 (Sr) 9.17 (Cs) 25.96 (Na) pH about 7 about 7 about 5.9 about 7about 7 about 5.9 about 11 volume to mass about 1000 about 1000 about1000 about 1000 about 1000 about 1000 about 238 ratio (ml/g) Final 243.42.9 80.0 0.03 273.6 (Cs)  76.23 (Sr) 0.45 (Mg) concentration 787.8 (Na)  1177 (Na) 1.85 (Ca) (ppm) 0.48 (Sr) 0.58 (Cs) 21.84 (Na) % Removal48.2 94.0 49.2 99.3  42.8 (Cs)  37.4 (Sr) 89.5 (Sr) 93.6 (Cs) Adsorption1.66 — 0.88 — 1.5  0.53 (Sr) — capacity (mmol/gr) K_(d) (mL/g) 905 1.59× 10⁴ 968 1.58 × 10⁵ 713.5 (Cs)  592.4 (Sr) 1.74 × 10³ (Mg) 159.8 (Na) 45.68 (Na) 1.20 × 10³ (Ca) 2.04 × 10³ (Sr) 3.53 × 10³ (Cs) 44.9 (Na)

Cs⁺ ion exchange experiments of compounds (1) with solutions of varyingpH (i.e., 0.7-12) were conducted. The results demonstrated thatcompounds (1) exhibit significant Cs⁺ uptake over the whole pH rangetested (FIG. 3A). Variable pH Sr²⁺ ion-exchange experiments were alsoperformed. The results are shown in FIG. 3B. As shown in FIG. 3B,compounds (1) display capture of Sr²⁺ in acidic media (pH about 2-4),which is superior over most inorganic exchangers reported.

Compounds of the general formula A_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (x=0.1-0.95;A=K⁺, Rb⁺; M=Mn²⁺, Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, Fe²⁺) display a capacity for exchangewith soft heavy metal ions like Hg²⁺, Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, Ag⁺. Results aredescribed for K_(2x)Mn_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (x=0.1-0.95) compounds {i.e.,compounds (1)}. EDS and ICP-AES data for the exchanged materialsconfirmed the complete removal of K⁺ ions and the presence of the heavymetal ions (Table 3).

TABLE 3 Selected data for the heavy metal ion exchanged products ofCompounds (1) Exchanged Material Band gap energy (average formula fromEDS) c-axis (Å) (eV) HgMn_(0.6)Sn_(2.3)S₆ 17.47 0.74 PbMnSn_(2.3)S₆26.05, 24.28 0.90 Cd_(1.8)Sn_(2.1)S₆ 18.45, 19.01 1.96Ag_(2.4)MnSn₂S_(5.5) 19.22 0.82

PXRD and solid state NIR-UV-Vis reflectance data are given in FIG. 4 andTable 3 respectively. Although Hg²⁺, Pb²⁺ and Ag⁺ replace only theinterlayer K⁺ ions, the Cd²⁺ exchanges with the intra-layer Mn²⁺ inaddition to the K⁺ ions. The exchange of manganese by cadmium wasconfirmed by EDS analysis on the solid after the ion-exchange processwhich revealed an average formula of Cd_(1.8)Sn_(2.1)S₆.

The Hg²⁺ and Pb²⁺ ion exchange equilibrium data are graphed in FIGS. 5and 6 respectively. A fit of the data (correlation coefficient R²=0.999)was performed with the Langmuir-Freundlich (LF) isotherm model (1)expressed as

$\begin{matrix}{q = {q_{m}\; \frac{\left( {bC}_{e} \right)^{\frac{1}{n}}}{1 + \left( {bC}_{e} \right)^{\frac{1}{n}}}}} & (1)\end{matrix}$

where q (mg/g) is the amount of the cation adsorbed at the equilibriumconcentration C_(e) (ppm), q_(m) is the maximum adsorption capacity ofthe adsorbent, and b and n are constants.

The maximum Hg²⁺ and Pb²⁺ exchange capacities calculated by the LFisotherm are 377.2±15.2 mg/g and 318.8±3.7 mg/g, respectively. Thesevalues are in reasonable agreement with the theoretical Hg (338.9 mg/g)and Pb (350.1 mg/g) exchange capacities for the materialK_(2x)Mn_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (x=0.95). The observed Hg²⁺ exchange capacity(about 1.88±0.08 mmol/g) of compounds (1) is comparable to those ofmesoporous thiol-functionalized silicates and other thiol-functionalizedadsorbents (1.5-7.2 mmol/g). The Pb²⁺-exchange capacity (about 1.54±0.02mmol/g) of compounds (1) exceeds that of thiol-functionalizedmontmorillonite materials (0.14-0.35 mmol/g), and microporoustitanosilicates (0.84-1.12 mmol/g), while it is slightly lower than thatof thiol-functionalized phyllosilicate clay (1.76 mmol/g). The frameworkdensity of compounds (1) (about 3.1 g/cm³) is much higher than that ofsilicate clays (about 2.0 g/cm³). Given the density difference betweencompounds (1) and silicates, the Pb²⁺ adsorption capacity of compounds(1) is actually equivalent to that of a silicate with capacity of about2.3 mmol/g.

It is remarkable that compounds (1) have proven to be efficient ateliminating Hg²⁺ at ppb levels. Specifically, compounds (1) may reducean initial Hg²⁺ concentration of 42 ppb down to 0.2-0.7 ppb, which isabout 4-10 times lower than the acceptable limit for Hg²⁺ in drinkingwater. Thus, compounds (1) may be used in applications for the treatmentof wastes with extremely low yet highly toxic Hg concentrations (e.g.,<50 ppb). Chemical precipitation is inactive for such wastes and thusadsorbents that can function in such low Hg concentrations aredesirable.

The effect of pH on the Hg^(2+ and Pb) ²⁺ ion exchange has also beenstudied. The pH range studied was 2.6-9.4 and the initial Hg²⁺ and Pb²⁺concentrations were 4-7 ppm. The results demonstrated that the affinityof compounds (1) for Hg²⁺ or Pb²⁺ is significant across the whole pHrange tested (FIGS. 7A and 7B). The compounds (1) displayed the maximumdistribution coefficient value (K_(d) about 2.3×10⁵ mL/g) for Hg²⁺ at apH of about 2.6, while no significant deviation has been observed in theaffinity of compounds (1) for Hg²⁺ at pH>4 (K_(d)=1.1-1.3×10⁴ mL/g). ThePb²⁺ distribution coefficients calculated for compounds (1) at variouspH values range from 1.1-8.9×10⁵ mL/g. The maximum affinity of compounds(1) for Pb²⁺ was observed at a pH of 3.7.

The Hg²⁺ and Pb²⁺ exchange kinetics data, obtained at room temperatureand at a pH of about 5, for compounds (1) are presented in FIGS. 8A and8B. The initial Hg²⁺ and Pb²⁺ concentrations used were 347.5 (0.97equivalents) and 246.2 (0.66 equivalents) ppm respectively. As can beseen from FIGS. 8A and 8B, the adsorption of Hg²⁺ and Pb²⁺ is remarkablyfast. Moreover, within only 5 min, compounds (1) can remove 96.4% ofHg²⁺ and 90.4% of Pb²⁺ from the solution. The equilibrium for both Hg²⁺and Pb²⁺ exchange processes seems to be reached in only about 15 min.

Contaminated groundwater and waste streams usually contain alkali andalkali-earth cations in higher concentrations than those of contaminants(e.g. heavy metal ions). Thus, the effect of high background electrolytelevels on the mercury and lead absorption by compounds (1) has been alsoinvestigated. The results showed that the affinity of compounds (1) forHg²⁺ or Pb²⁺ remains almost unaffected in the presence of large excessof Na⁺ or Ca²⁺ (Table 4). It is remarkable that even in the presence ofextremely high Na⁺ or Ca⁺ concentrations (e.g., about 1 M), the K_(d)^(Hg) values were found as high as 10⁵ mL/g (in the presence of sodium)and 8.9×10⁴ mL/g (in the presence of calcium). The high Pb²⁺ exchangecapacity and selectivity of compounds (1) is also retained in thepresence of about 1 M NaCl (K_(d) ^(Pb)=8.3×10⁴ mL/g) or about 1 M CaCl₂(K_(d) ^(Pb)=1.9×10⁴ mL/g). Without wishing to be being bound by theory,it is believed that the presence of the soft sulfide ligands induces thecompounds (1) to exhibit a high selectivity for Hg²⁺ or Pb²⁺ againsthard ions like Na⁺ or Ca²⁺. This property of compounds (1) makes themsuperior heavy metal ion adsorbents as compared to traditional oxidicion exchangers which exhibit decreased capacity for soft metal ions inthe presence of high background electrolyte concentrations.

TABLE 4 Results for the competitive Hg²⁺—Na⁺,^(a) Hg²⁺—Ca²⁺,^(b)Pb²⁺—Na⁺,^(c) Pb²⁺—Ca^(2+d) experiments for compounds (1) EquivalentsInitial (Hg or Pb) Final (Hg or Pb) K_(d) (mL/g) of metal concentrationconcentration % Removal for Hg or Metal ions ions (ppm) (ppm) of Hg orPb Pb Hg²⁺/Na⁺ (1 M)   1/505 410.50 3.99 99.0 10⁵ Hg²⁺/Ca²⁺ (1 M)  1/505 386.40 3.89 99.0 8.9 × 10⁴ Pb²⁺/Na⁺ (1 M) 0.9/505 329.75 3.7698.9 8.3 × 10⁴ Pb²⁺/Ca²⁺ (1 M) 0.7/505 303.00 13.96 95.4 1.9 × 10⁴^(a)pH of the initial solution about 6.5; ^(b)pH of the initial solutionabout 2.1; ^(c)pH of the initial solution about 5.0; ^(d)pH of theinitial solution about 4.6.

Ion-exchange experiments on competitive Hg²⁺—Pb²⁺ exchange wereperformed with the simultaneous presence of nearly equal molarconcentrations of both cations and applying different volume to massratio s (from 495-1923 mL/g). The results showed that the compounds (1)are capable of almost quantitative (99.1-99.8%) elimination of both Hg²⁺and Pb²⁺ cations from solution. The comparison of K_(d) ^(Hg) and K_(d)^(Pb) values obtained revealed that the materials are only slightly moreselective for Pb²⁺ over Hg²⁺ at volume to mass ratio s about 495, 971and 1442 mL/g, while they display slightly higher selectivity for Hg²⁺against Pb²⁺ at volume to mass ratio of about 1923 (FIG. 9).

Solid chalcogenic acids of the general formula H_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆(M=Mn²⁺, Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, Fe²⁺; x=0.1-0.95) can be produced with treatment ofA_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ with 0.6 M HCl acid according to equation:

{2.8/3 − x}[A_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3 − x)S₆] + [{16.8/3 − x} − 5.8]H C 1H_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3 − x)S₆ + {2.8 ⋅ 2x/3 − x}K C 1 + [{2.8 ⋅ x/3 − x} − 0.2]M C 1₂ + [{16.8/3 − x} − 6]H₂S

According to the above equation, H_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (M=Mn²⁺, Mg²⁺,Zn²⁺, Fe²⁺, Co²⁺ or Ni²⁺; x=0.1-0.95) can be formed by decomposition ofA_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ due to removal of M²⁺ from the layer and attack ofH⁺ to sulfide atoms resulting in release of H₂S. In some embodiments,the compound is of the formula H_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆, wherein x is 0.15or 0.20. The characterization of H_(0.4)Mn_(0.2)Sn_(2.8)S₆ {formula (2)}was achieved with powder X-ray diffraction (showing a layered structuresimilar to SnS₂), infrared spectroscopy (revealing the H—S bonds) andvarious additional analytical techniques (TGA, EDS, ICP-AES,pyrolysis-MS). Selected results are given in FIGS. 10 and 11 and inTable 5.

The soft heavy metal ion (Hg²⁺, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, Ag⁺) exchange properties ofcompound (2) have also been studied. Selected data for the Hg²⁺/Ag⁺exchanged products of compound (2) are given in Table 5.

TABLE 5 Selected data for compound (2) and its Hg²⁺ and Ag⁺ exchangedanalogues Formula Cell parameters^(c) Band gap (eV)H_(0.4)Mn_(0.2)Sn_(2.8)S₆ ^(a) a = 3.591(2) Å, c = 5.877(1) Å, 1.0 V =65.63 Å³ Hg_(0.5)Mn_(0.2)Sn_(2.8)S₆ ^(b) c = 5.84 Å 0.8Ag_(0.6)Mn_(0.2)Sn_(2.8)S₆ ^(b) c = 6.17 Å 1.4 ^(a)Formula found byICP-AES; ^(b)Average formula from EDS; ^(b)Due to strong preferredorientation, mostly (001) reflections were apparent in the PXRD patternsof mercury and silver-exchanged materials and thus, accurate indexing ofthese patterns was not possible.

PXRD (FIG. 12A) of the Hg²⁺-exchanged compound (2) revealed a smallshift (about 0.2°) of the (001) reflection to higher 2θ angles and thus,the calculated c-axis is slightly smaller than that of the pristinematerial (2) (Table 5). The Ag⁺-exchanged compound (2) displayed asignificantly longer c-axis (6.17 Å) than that of pristine compound (2)and its Hg²⁺-exchanged analogue (FIG. 12A, Table 5). This is expectedsince Ag—S bonds (about 2.7 Å bond length) are typically longer thanHg—S bonds (about 2.5 Å bond length) ones.

Infrared spectroscopy has also been used to confirm the replacement ofprotons of compound (2) after the Hg²⁺ and Ag⁺ ion-exchange processes.Specifically, the characteristic IR peak of H—S bonds of compound (2) at2403 cm⁻¹ were absent in the IR spectra of the Ag⁺ and Hg²⁺ exchangedmaterials, revealing the complete removal of H⁺ as shown in FIG. 12B.

In addition, the intercalation of Hg²⁺ and Ag⁺ was further probed bysolid-state NIR-UV-V is reflectance. The Hg²⁺-exchanged compoundexhibits a lower band gap (about 0.8 eV) than that of compound (2) (FIG.12C). Such observations are consistent with the fact that the Hg—Scovalent interactions are stronger than H—S ones. A blue shift of about0.4 eV has been observed for the Ag⁺-exchanged material as shown in FIG.12C. Without wishing to be bound by theory, this may be explained by theintercalation of Ag⁺ ions resulting in a significant expansion of theinterlayer space of compound (2) and therefore, in weaker interlayerinteractions.

The adsorption capacity of compound (2) for Pb²⁺ and Cd²⁺ was found tobe smaller than that observed for Hg²⁺ and Ag⁺. As revealed by ICP-MSdata, compound (2) can absorb about 50 and about 70% of the initial Pb²⁺and Cd²⁺ concentrations respectively. The absorption of Cd²⁺ and Pb²⁺ bycompound (2) is due to the decomposition of the framework, rather thanthe ion-exchange. The absence of a lead and cadmium exchange capacityfor compound (2) was confirmed by IR spectroscopy and specifically, bythe presence of the H—S peak at about 2400 cm⁻¹ in the IR spectrum ofsamples of compound (2) treated with solutions of Pb²⁺ or Cd²⁺. Inaddition, the PXRD patterns of these samples were almost identical withthat of the pristine compound (2).

The inability of compound (2) to exhibit ion-exchange behavior with Pb²⁺and Cd²⁺ and consequently, its low adsorption capacity for these metalions as compared to that for Hg²⁺ and Ag⁺ can be explained with theconcept of soft-hard acids and bases. It seems that the softness ofPb^(2+ and Cd) ²⁺ (and therefore their affinity for the sulfide ligands)is not high enough to favor replacement of the protons of compound (2)by these cations. Thus, Pb^(2+ and Cd) ²⁺ can be absorbed only through adecomposition of the framework to binary phases. In contrast, Ag⁺ andHg²⁺ are soft enough to exchange the protons of compound (2) andtherefore, the observed adsorption capacity of compound (2) for thesecations is higher.

The mercury ion-exchange equilibrium data for compound (2) is presentedin FIG. 13. The fit of the data was achieved with theLangmuir-Freundlich (LF) isotherm model (correlation coefficientR²=0.997). This model predicts a maximum Hg²⁺ exchange capacity ofcompound (2) equal to 67.3±1.5 mg/g. The material displays an enormousaffinity for Hg²⁺ reflected in the calculated distribution coefficientK_(d) ^(Hg) values ranging from 1.74×10⁵ to 1.10×10⁷ mL/g. These K_(d)values for compound (2) exceed those reported for commercial resins(1.80×10⁴-5.10×10⁵ mL/g) and silane chelating fibers (3.00×10⁵-3.80×10⁶mL/g) and they compare well with the K_(d) ^(Hg) values for mesoporousthiol-functionalized silicates (3.40×10⁵-1.01×10⁸ mL/g).

Compound (2) is also capable of remediation of Hg²⁺ in extremely lowinitial concentrations (42 ppb), reducing mercury content levels as lowas about 0.2 ppb. Such levels are about ten times lower than theestablished acceptable levels for drinking water.

Hg²⁺ adsorption by compound (2) is practically unaffected by the pH ofthe solutions, as shown in Table 6. Specifically, the percentage ofmercury removal remained very high (99.0-99.8%) over the entire testedpH range. Remarkably, the compound was found to efficiently capture Hg⁺,and even in 1.2 M HCl solutions (i.e., under highly competitive H⁺conditions for Hg²⁺-exchange) about 99.8% of the initial Hg²⁺ contentwas eliminated.

As expected, high electrolyte concentrations do not appear to affect theHg²⁺ adsorption by compound (2). Specifically, in the presence of about20-fold excess of Na⁺ (about 0.07 M Na⁺), the K_(d) ^(Hg) value wasfound 10⁷ mL/g (Table 8). A high removal capacity (97.4-99.1%) ofcompound (2) for Hg²⁺ is retained even in the presence of Na⁺ or Ca²⁺ inconcentrations as high as 1 M (Table 6).

A competitive experiment with the presence of equal molar concentrationsof Hg²⁺, Ag⁺, Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺ (about 0.8 mM, total equivalents about 0.06),was also performed. The ICP-MS analysis data revealed that Hg²⁺ and Ag²⁺were quantitatively absorbed (99.99%), while only 65-66% of the initialPb²⁺ and Cd²⁺ amounts were removed from the solution (Table 6). Thisresult is consistent with the fact that compound (2) is selective forcations with high softness which are able to substitute the interlayerprotons of this material. The volume to mass ratio used in theseexperiments was 1000 mL/g with the exceptions of Hg²⁺—Na⁺ (0.07 M) andHg²⁺—Pb²⁺—Cd²⁺—Ag⁺ experiments performed with volume to mass ratio s of500 and 200 mL/g, respectively.

TABLE 6 Data for Hg²⁺ ion exchange of compound (2) at various pH andresults of competitive ion exchange experiments Initial Final Equiv. ofconcentration concentration % Metal ion metal ion (ppb) (ppb) RemovalK_(d) (mL/g) Hg (pH about 0) 0.02 6693 10.6 99.84 6.64 × 10⁵ Hg (pHabout 7) 0.02 6013 17.9 99.70 3.32 × 10⁵ Hg (pH about 9) 0.02 6255 63.298.98 9.42 × 10⁴ Hg²⁺/Na⁺ (0.07 M)^(a) 0.2/20  141430 (Hg)   5.8 (Hg)99.99 10⁷ Hg²⁺/Na⁺ (1 M)^(a) 0.2/500  82100 (Hg)  867 (Hg) 99.10  8.5 ×10⁴ Hg²⁺/Ca²⁺ (1 M)^(b) 0.2/500  77275 (Hg) 2137 (Hg) 97.39  3.2 × 10⁴Hg²⁺ 0.015 152960 5.2 99.99 5.46 × 10⁶ Pb²⁺ 0.015 175160 59360 66.11 —Cd²⁺ 0.015 91100 31680 65.22 — Ag⁺ 0.015 82540 1.6 99.99 9.08 × 10⁶^(a)pH of the initial solution about 6.5; ^(b)pH of the initial solutionabout 2.1.

The Hg²⁺ exchange kinetics data for compound (2) are graphed in FIG. 14.The initial mercury concentration used was 69.5 ppm and the volume tomass ratio was about 1000. The data shows that the kinetics of Hg²⁺adsorption is fast, with the exchange equilibrium reached in only 15min.

Compounds of the formula H_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ wherein x is 0.15 or 0.20are stable in strong acidic conditions. Thus, regeneration ofH_(0.3)Mn_(0.15)Sn_(2.85)S₆ was possible by treating its Hg²⁺-exchangedanalogue with highly concentrated hydrochloric acid. Reaction with 12 MHCl resulted in ˜93% removal of Hg²⁺ from the solid as found by ICP-AES.However, this procedure resulted in the dissolution of ˜40% of thematerial. Regeneration with minimum dissolution (˜10-15%) was achievedby treating twice the Hg-exchanged material with 8 M HCl acid. Theregeneration of the ion-exchanger was easily followed by IR spectroscopyas the variation in the intensity of the H—S stretching band at ˜2400cm⁻¹. This band invisible in the IR spectra of fully exchangedHg²⁺-samples reappeared in the spectra of the acid-treated samples.Ion-exchange of a regenerated material with Hg²⁺ has been alsoperformed. The mercury load of the exchanged solid was found about 48.8mg/g, which is ˜87.5% of the theoretical Hg²⁺ exchange capacity (55.8mg/g) of the pristine material H_(0.3)Mn_(0.15)Sn_(2.85)S₆. This resultindicated that the regeneration process only slightly modify theexchange capacity of the compound.

One skilled in the art will readily realize that all ranges discussedherein also describe all subranges therein for all purposes and that allsuch subranges are also provided. Any listed range can be easilyrecognized as sufficiently describing the same range being broken downinto at least equal halves, thirds, quarters, fifths, tenths, etc. As anon-limiting example, each range discussed herein can be readily brokendown into a lower third, middle third and upper third, etc.

All publications, patent applications, issued patents, and otherdocuments referred to in this specification are herein incorporated byreference as if each individual publication, patent application, issuedpatent, or other document was specifically and individually indicated tobe incorporated by reference in its entirety. Definitions that arecontained in text incorporated by reference are excluded to the extentthat they contradict definitions in this disclosure.

EXAMPLES

The present invention, thus generally described, will be understood morereadily by reference to the following examples, which are provided byway of illustration and are not intended to be limiting.

Synthetic methods for the preparation of K_(2x)Mn_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (1)(x=0.1-0.95) and H_(0.4)Mn_(0.2)Sn_(2.8)S₆ compounds are described.Similar procedures can be followed for synthesis of other compounds ofthe formula A_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ and H_(0.4)M_(0.2)Sn_(2.8)S₆(x=0.1-0.95; A=Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Rb⁺; M=Mn²⁺, Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, Fe²⁺).

Synthesis of K_(2x)Mn_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆.yH₂O (x=0.5-0.95; y=2-5) Compounds(1)

A) Solid State Synthesis

A mixture of Sn (1.9 mmol, 226 mg), Mn (1.1 mmol, 60 mg), K₂S (2 mmol,220 mg), and S (16 mmol, 512 mg) was sealed under vacuum (10⁻⁴ Torr) ina silica tube and heated (50° C./h) to 500 (or 400)° C. for 60 h,followed by cooling to room temperature at 50° C./h. The excess flux wasremoved with DMF to reveal dark brown polycrystalline material (0.4 g,about 80% yield based on Sn). Electron Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS)analysis gave the average formula K_(1.4)MnSn_(2.5)S_(5.5). A moreaccurate determination of Mn, K and S content by InductivelyCoupled-Plasma (ICP)-Atomic Emission (AES) analysis is consistent withthe formula K_(2x)Mn_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ with x being, in most cases, between0.7 and 0.8. A small quantity of MnS (green powder) can be picked out byhand under microscope.

B) Hydrothermal Synthesis

K₂S (0.40 mmol, 0.044 g), MnCl₂ (0.20 mmol, 0.025 g), Sn (0.40 mmol,0.024 g) and S (0.40 mmol, 0.014 g) were combined and loaded in a ⅜ inchPyrex tube along with 0.30 mL of water under nitrogen atmosphere in aglovebox. The tube was then evacuated to <3×10⁻³ torr and flame-sealed.The tube was kept in an oven at about 220° C. for 14 d. The productswere isolated in air by filtration and washed with deionized water,ethanol and ether. Under microscopic observation, the product consistedof dark red/black hexagonal plate-like crystals (FIG. 2) plusunidentified white material. The yield for manually separated crystalswas about 15-30%. The formula for the product of the hydrothermalreaction determined by single crystal diffraction measurements (seebelow) was K_(1.9)Mn_(0.95)Sn_(2.05)S₆ (1a).

C) Hydrothermal Synthesis (ii)

Elemental Sn (60 mmol, 7.140 g), Mn (30 mmol, 1.656 g), S (180 mmol,5.784 g), K₂CO₃ (30 mmol, 4.157 g), water (40 mL) were mixed in a 125 mLTeflon-lined stainless steel autoclave. The autoclave was sealed andplaced in a box furnace with a temperature of 200° C. The autoclaveremained undisturbed at this temperature for 4 days. The autoclave wasthen allowed to cool to room temperature. A brown polycrystallineproduct was isolated by filtration (14.30 g, yield ≈84%), washed severaltimes with water, acetone and diethylether, in order, and dried undervacuum. The composition of the product was determined by ICP-AES (K, Sn,Mn, S content) and TGA (H₂O) to be K_(2x)Mn_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆.2H₂O (x=0.95).

Synthesis of H_(0.4)Mn_(0.2)Sn_(2.8)S₆

K_(2x)Mn_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (x=0.5-0.95) (1) (0.93 mmol, 0.52 g) was added asa solid in 20 mL HCl (0.6 M) solution. The mixture was kept undermagnetic stirring for ≈12 h. This procedure was performed twice in orderto ensure complete conversion of (1) to the proton-containing material.The grey solid was then isolated by filtration, washed several timeswith water, acetone, and ether, and dried in air (Yield 0.408 g, 95%).EDS analysis gave the average formula Mn_(0.3)Sn_(2.7)S_(5.6).Determination of the Mn and S content by ICP-AES was consistent with theformula H_(0.2)Mn_(0.2)Sn_(2.8)S₆ (proton content was calculated basedon charge balance requirements; Sn content was calculated based on thegeneral formula H_(2x)Mn_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ for x=0.2).

Ion-Exchange Studies

The Cs⁺, Sr²⁺, Hg²⁺, Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, Ag⁺ uptake from solutions of variousconcentrations were studied by the batch method at a volume to massratio of about 1000 mL/g, room temperature and 24 h contact.

The competitive ion exchange experiments of (1) or (2) were also carriedout with the batch method at volume to mass ratio s of 238-1495 mL/g,room temperature and 24 h contact. The distribution coefficient K_(d),used for the determination of the affinity and selectivity of materialsfor Cs⁺, Sr⁺, Hg²⁺, Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, Ag⁺ is given by the equation:

${K_{d} = \frac{V\left\lbrack {\left( {C_{0} - C_{f}} \right)\text{/}C_{f}} \right\rbrack}{m}};$

where C₀ and C_(f) are the initial and equilibrium concentration ofM^(n+) (ppm), V is the volume (ml) of the testing solution and m is theamount of the ion exchanger (g) used in the experiment.

Physical Measurements

Powder patterns were obtained using a CPS 120 INEL X-ray powderdiffractometer with Ni-filtered Cu Kα radiation operating at 40 kV and20 mA and equipped with a position-sensitive detector. Samples wereground and spread on a glass slide.

The energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) analyses were performed using aJEOL JSM-6400V scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with a TracorNorthern energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) detector. Data acquisitionwas performed with an accelerating voltage of 25 kV and 40 saccumulation time.

Accurate determination of the content of K⁺, Mn²⁺, Sn⁴⁺ and S²⁻ ofprecursor compounds (1) were performed on diluted aqua regia(HCl:HNO₃=3:1) solutions of (1) by Inductively Coupled Plasma-AtomicEmission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES) using a VISTA MPX CCD SIMULTANEOUSICP-OES instrument. ICP-AES was also used for determination of theconcentration of Sr²⁺ in water solutions after ion-exchange. Standardsof the ions of interest (K⁺, Mn²⁺, Sn⁴⁺, S²⁻, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Sr²⁺) wereprepared by diluting commercial (Aldrich or GFS chemicals) 1000 ppmICP-standards of these ions. The calibration was linear or quadraticwith errors of 5-10%.

Cs⁺, Hg²⁺, Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, Ag⁺ were analyzed with Inductively CoupledPlasma-Mass Spectroscopy (ICP-MS) using a computer-controlled ThermoElemental (Waltham, Mass.) PQ ExCell Inductively Coupled Plasma MassSpectrometer with a quadruple setup. Ten standards of the variouscations in the range of 1-40 ppb were prepared by diluting commercial(Aldrich or GFS chemical) about 1000 ppm solutions of these cations. Thesamples were diluted to lower the concentrations below than 40 ppb. Allsamples (including standards) were prepared in a 3% nitric acid solutionwith 5 ppb of a ¹¹⁵In internal standard in order to correct forinstrumental drift and matrix effects during analysis.

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was performed on a Perkin ElmerPhi 5400 ESCA system equipped with a Magnesium Kα x-ray source. Sampleswere analyzed at pressures between 10⁻⁹ and 10⁻⁸ torr with a pass energyof 29.35 eV and a take-off angle of 45°. All peaks were referred to thesignature CIs peak for adventitious carbon at 284.6 eV.

Infrared spectra (IR) in the mid-IR region [4000-400 cm⁻¹, DiffuseReflectance Infrared Fourier Transform (DRIFT) method] were recordedwith a computer-controlled Nicolet 750 Magna-IR series II spectrometerequipped with a TGS/PE detector and silicon beam splitter in 2-cm⁻¹resolution.

UV/vis/near-IR diffuse reflectance spectra were obtained at roomtemperature on a Shimadzu UV-3010 PC double beam, double monochromatorspectrophotometer in the wavelength range of 200-2500 nm. BaSO₄ powderwas used as a reference (100% reflectance) and base material on whichthe powder sample was coated. The reflectance data were converted toabsorption using the Kubelka-Munk function, and the band edge for eachsample was estimated from the intercept of the line extrapolated fromthe high-energy end of the absorption to the baseline.

Pyrolysis mass spectra were obtained with a TRIO-1 mass spectrometer.Samples were heated at 20° C./min and the volatile products were ionizedby electron ionization.

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was carried out with a Shimatzu TGA 50.Samples (10±0.5 mg) were placed in quartz crucible. Samples were heatedfrom ambient temperature to 500° C. in a 20 ml/min flow of N₂ or air.Heating rate of 10° C./min was used and continuous records of sampletemperature, sample weight and its first derivative (DTG) were taken.

A Siemens SMART Platform CCD diffractometer operating at roomtemperature and using graphite-monochromatized Mo Kα radiation, was usedfor data collection on single crystals of compound (1) and itsCs-exchanged analogue. Cell refinement and data reduction were carriedout with the program SAINT. An empirical absorption correction was doneto the data using SADABS. The intensities were extracted by the programXPREP. The structures were solved with direct methods using SHELXS andleast square refinement were done against F_(obs) ² using routines fromSHELXTL software. The K and Cs atom positions were modeled as splitsites.

UO₂ ²⁺, Th⁴⁺ and Pu⁴⁺ Capture Using Chalcogenic Compounds of the GeneralFormula A_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (x=0.1-0.95; A=Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Rb⁺; M=Mn²⁺,Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, Fe²⁺)

A process for the removal of UO₂ ²⁺, Th⁴⁺ and Pu⁴⁺ using the layeredchalcogenide materials of the general formula A_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆(x=0.1-0.95; A=Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Rb⁺; M=Mn²⁺, Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, Fe²⁺) is alsoprovided. A detailed investigation of the uranyl (UO₂ ²⁺) exchangeproperties of K_(1.95)M_(0.95)Sn_(2.05)S₆ material (KMS-1) revealed thatthis ion-exchanger shows a huge absorption capacity equal to 377 guranium per Kg of the ion-exchanger, extremely fast exchange kinetics,high removal capacity over a wide pH range and amazing selectivity foruranyl against cations such as Na⁺, Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ which can be presentin high concentrations in natural water resources and wastewater.

The extremely rapid and efficient absorption of uranium by KMS-1 may beuseful for remediation processes (wherever uranium waste is generated)and for the extraction of uranium from seawater. In addition,preliminary experiments showed that KMS-1 can exchange all its K⁺ ionsby Th⁴⁺. Therefore, it may be also used for the capture of Pu⁴⁺ which isclosed analogue of Th⁴⁺. Compounds A_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (x=0.1-0.95;A=Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Rb⁺; M=Mn²⁺, Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, Fe²⁺) can be used forremediation processes in nuclear waste facilities and uranium mines andfor extraction of uranium from seawater.

The majority of inorganic ion exchangers with uranyl exchange capacityreported are oxygen-based materials. Clays and zeolites arecharacteristic examples of these materials. Metal chalcogenides withlayered structures and loosely bound interlayer cations could alsoexhibit similar properties to oxides but with unique attributes. Thepresence of the soft chalcogen ligands can induce to them innateselectivity for heavier metal ions and against hard ions such as Na²⁺ orCa²⁺, a property which could be particularly useful for iondiscriminations in nuclear wastes or wastewater with heavy metal ioncontaminants. Layered chalcogenides with ion exchange properties remainscarce. These materials are mainly limited to alkali ion-intercalatedtransition metal dichalcogenides A_(x)MQ₂ (A=alkali ion; M=earlytransition metal, Q=S, Se, Te). Such materials, however, are notsuitable for practical applications as ion exchangers, due to theirthermodynamic and hydrolytic instability.

Compounds of the general formula A_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (x=0.1-0.95;A=Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Rb⁺; M=Mn²⁺, Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, Fe²⁺) have various advantageswhen compared to known uranyl sorbents. Some of these advantages are asfollows:

-   -   a) They possess a very high cation-exchange capacity for uranyl        equal to 377 g uranium per Kg of the ion-exchanger which exceeds        the capacities of most of the known inorganic ion-exchangers        (e.g. clays showed uranyl-exchange capacities ˜100-120 g/Kg) and        activated carbon (−0.1-0.2 g/Kg);    -   b) They display huge selectivity for UO₂ ²⁺ over ions like Na⁺,        Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺ being the major competitors for the cation exchange        of uranyl in wastewater and natural water resources. Even the        presence of sodium and calcium cations in concentrations        several-thousand more than those of UO₂ ²⁺ does not affect the        uranyl absorption capacity of A_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ materials.        Clays and zeolites usually loose much of their uranyl absorption        capacity when large excess of Na⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺ are present in        water;    -   c) They absorb uranyl efficiently in a wide pH range (2.5-10).        Oxygen-based ion exchangers usually show efficient uranyl        exchange capacity only for pH>4-6;    -   d) A_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ materials as purely inorganic compounds        may possess a number of advantages as UO₂ ²⁺ sorbents over the        conventional organic ion exchange resins, such as superior        chemical, thermal and radiation stability;    -   e) They can be prepared with a low cost and environmental        friendly synthetic procedure. Thus, these materials exhibit        distinctive advantages over functionalized silica-based        sorbents, which are prepared with a high cost synthesis (due to        the use of expensive organic surfactants, organic solvents and        organosilane compounds) resulting also in harmful organic waste        (e.g. toluene is used as a solvent for these reactions).

Compounds of the formula A_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ display a layeredstructure. The layer is built up by edge-sharing “M, Sn” S₆ octahedrawith M and Sn atoms occupying the same crystallographic position and allsulfur ligands being three-coordinated (FIG. 1). The A⁺ ionsintercalated between the layers are positionally disordered and areeasily exchangeable for a variety of cations.

The ion exchange of K_(1.9)Mn_(0.95)Sn_(2.05)S₆ (KMS-1) with UO₂ ²⁺ canbe described with the following equation:

The complete exchange of K⁺ ions by UO₂ ²⁺ was confirmed byInductively-Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES) andEnergy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS). These analytical data showed theexpected ratio U:Mn:Sn:S˜1:1:2:6 for the fully-exchanged material.Powder X-Ray Diffraction (PXRD) data (FIG. 15A) showed expansion(1.4-9.8 Å) of the c-axis of KMS-1 with the intercalation of uranylions. One broad (003) and two (006) peaks were apparent in the PXRDpattern of the exchanged material (FIG. 1 SB). These results indicatedthe intercalation of UO₂ ²⁺ as hydrated cation and the coexistence of atleast two differently hydrated phases with c-axes of 26.43(1) and34.86(1) Å. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) for the uranyl-exchangedmaterial revealed a total weight loss of ˜12% from 25-300° C. (FIG. 15B)which may be assigned to the removal of ˜5.5 water molecules per formulaof the compound.

The presence of uranyl cations in the exchanged material wasdemonstrated by infrared (IR), solid state UV-Vis reflectance and X-rayphotoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The IR spectrum of the exchangedmaterial showed the existence of a strong peak at ˜917 cm⁻¹ (not presentin the spectrum of KMS-1) which is assigned to the anti-symmetricvibration of the [O═U^(VI)═O]²⁺ group (FIG. 15C). It is interesting tonote this peak is significantly red-shifted compared to thecorresponding peak for the aqueous UO₂ ²⁺ complexes (958-974 cm⁻¹). Thisis indicative of a significant interaction of the intercalated uranylcation with the metal sulfide layers. The solid state UV-Vis reflectancespectrum of the UO₂ ²⁺-exchanged material contains a broad intense peakcentered at ˜440 nm (FIG. 15D). This band, which is characteristic foruranyl complexes, is attributed to a charge-transfer (ligand to metal)process. XPS data revealed the presence of U4f_(7/2) and U4f_(5/2)peaks, with their main components corresponding to binding energies of381.8 (peak 3, FIG. 16A) and 392.3 eV (peak 1, FIG. 16B) respectively.These binding energies are consistent with U⁶⁺. Furthermore, thepresence of satellite peaks with binding energies ˜2.9-3.2 eV (peak 2,FIG. 16A; peak 3, FIG. 16B) higher than those of the main U4f_(7/2) andU4f_(5/2) lines is also characteristic of hexavalent uranium.

To assess the uranyl removal capacity of KMS-1, UO₂ ²⁺ ion-exchangeequilibration studies were conducted. The UO₂₊ ion exchange equilibriumdata are shown in FIG. 17A. These data can be fitted with the Langmuirisotherm model expressed by the equation:

$\begin{matrix}{q = {q_{m}\frac{{bC}_{g}}{\left( {1 + {bC}_{g}} \right)}}} & (1)\end{matrix}$

wherein q (mg/g) is the amount of the cation adsorbed at the equilibriumconcentration C_(e) (ppm), q_(m) is the maximum adsorption capacity ofthe adsorbent and b (L/mg) is the Langmuir constant related to the freeenergy of the adsorption.

The maximum UO₂ ²⁺ exchange capacity q_(m) of KMS-1 was found to be377±15 mg/g, which exceeds the capacities of most of the known inorganicexchangers (100-120 mg/g) and it is comparable with the capacities ofthe best organic resins (400-450 mg/g).

The affinity of the material for UO₂ ²⁺ can be expressed in terms of thedistribution coefficient

$K_{d} = \frac{V\left\lbrack {\left( {C_{0} - C_{f}} \right)\text{/}C_{f}} \right\rbrack}{m}$

where C₀ and C_(f) are the initial and equilibrium concentration ofM^(n+) (ppm), V is the volume (ml) of the testing solution and m is theamount of the ion exchanger (g) used in the experiment. The K_(d) valuesfor UO₂ ²⁺ exchange were found very high (i.e., in the range 10⁴-1.8×10⁵mL/g) indicating an exceptional affinity of KMS-1 for UO₂ ²⁺.

The effect of pH on the uranyl exchange was also investigated. Theinitial U concentration for these variable-pH experiments was ˜5 ppm.Inductively-Coupled Plasma Mass Spectroscopy (ICP-MS) analyses data forthe solutions after the ion-exchange showed that the uranyl absorptionwas quantitative (removal of 95.6-99.8%) within the wide pH range 2.5-9(FIG. 17B). It is interesting to note that the uranyl removal efficiencyof KMS-1 was retained significant (˜80%) under very alkaline conditions(pH˜10), where uranyl cations form stable anionic complexes withcarbonate ions (carbonate ions are generated by carbon dioxide absorbedby alkaline solutions) and are not easily exchangeable by cations.

Nuclear waste and contaminated groundwater usually contain very highsalt concentrations and uranium at very low levels (<1 ppm). Therefore,a detailed investigation of the selectivity of KMS-1 for uranyl in thepresence of large excess of NaA, where A=Cl⁻, NO₃ ², and CaCl₂electrolytes was performed. The results of these experiments revealedthat the presence of NaA even in concentrations 2.5×10⁴ times higherthan the uranyl concentration not only did not reduce the UO₂ ²⁺ removalcapacity of KMS-1 but it actually enhanced the uranyl absorption byKMS-1 (FIGS. 18A, 18B and 18C). For example, the K_(d) ^(U) value foundin the presence of 10⁴-fold excess of NaCl (pH˜5) was 3.3×10⁵ mL/g,while the K_(d) ^(U) value in distilled water (no salt, pH˜5) was 1.3×10mL/g.

The exact reasons for this enhancement of uranyl removal are not known.The calcium ion (Ca²⁺) as a divalent cation is expected to be a strongercompetitor for the uranyl exchange of KMS-1. However, only a smalldecrease (−4.5%) of the UO₂ ²⁺ removal capacity of KMS-1 was observedeven with concentrations of CaCl₂ 2.5×10⁴ times higher than that ofuranium (FIG. 18D). Even under alkaline conditions (e.g., pH ˜9) notfavoring cation-exchange of UO₂ ²⁺ and with very large (2.5×10⁴ fold)excess of CaCl₂, KMS-1 retained a significant removal capacity (˜80%)for uranyl (FIG. 18D).

The kinetics of the uranyl ion-exchange by KMS-1 were also examined. Theinitial uranium concentration was ˜570 ppb and the pH of the solutionswas adjusted to ˜3. The absorption of uranyl by KMS-1 was found to beextremely fast, reaching 99.3% removal capacity within only 2 minutes ofsolution/KMS-1 contact (FIG. 19A). In addition, the kinetics for the UO₂²⁺ removal from portable water intentionally contaminated with ˜1 ppm ofuranium (the final pH was adjusted to ˜3.6) were studied. The results(FIG. 19B) revealed that the absorption of uranyl remained very fasteven under these conditions (i.e., in the presence of variouscompetitive cations such as Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, etc. in much greaterconcentrations than uranium). It is important to note that the finaluranium concentrations measured after these exchange experiments withdistilled or portable water were in the range of 1.5-20 ppb, much lowerthan the acceptable limit of 30 ppb defined by United StatesEnvironmental protection Agency (EPA).

Synthesis of K_(2x)Mn_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (KMS-1) (x=0.1-0.95)

A) Solid State Synthesis

A mixture of Sn (1.9 mmol, 226 mg), Mn (1.1 mmol, 60 mg), K₂S (2 mmol,220 mg), and S (16 mmol, 512 mg) was sealed under vacuum (10⁻⁴ Torr) ina silica tube and heated (50° C./h) to 500 (or 400)° C. for 60 h,followed by cooling to room temperature at 50° C./h. The excess flux wasremoved with DMF to reveal dark brown polycrystalline material (0.4 gr,˜80% yield based on Sn). Electron Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) analysisgave the average formula “K_(0.4)MnSn_(2.5)S_(5.5)”. More accuratedetermination of Mn, K and S content by Inductively Coupled-Plasma(ICP)-Atomic Emission (AES) analysis is consistent with the formulaK_(2x)Mn_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ with x being, in most cases, in between 0.7 and0.8. Small quantity of MnS (green powder) can be picked out by handunder microscope.

B) Hydrothermal Synthesis (ii)

Elemental Sn (60 mmol, 7.140 g), Mn (30 mmol, 1.656 g), S (180 mmol,5.784 g), K₂CO₃ (30 mmol, 4.157 g), water (40 mL) were mixed in a 125 mLTeflon-lined stainless steel autoclave. The autoclave was sealed andplaced in a box furnace with a temperature of 200° C. The autoclaveremained undisturbed at this temperature for 4 days. The autoclave wasthen allowed to cool at room temperature. A brown polycrystallineproduct was isolated by filtration (14.30 g, yield ≈84%), washed severaltimes with water, acetone and diethylether (with this order) and driedunder vacuum. The exact composition of the product determined by ICP-AES(K, Sn, Mn, S content) and TGA (H₂O) was K_(2x)Mn_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆.2H₂O(x=0.95).

Ion-Exchange Studies

A typical ion-exchange experiment of KMS-1 with UO₂ ²⁺ can be describedas follows: In a solution of UO₂(NO₃)₂.6H₂O (0.03 mmol, 15 mg) in water(10 ml), compound KMS-1 (0.025 mmol, 15 mg) was added as a solid. Themixture was kept under magnetic stirring for 12 h. Then, thepolycrystalline material was isolated by filtration, washed severaltimes with water, acetone and ether and dried in the air.

The UO₂ ²⁺ uptake from solutions of various concentrations was studiedby the batch method at V:m˜1000 mL/g, pH˜3-4, room temperature and 12 hcontact. These data were used for the determination of UO₂ ²⁺ adsorptionisotherm.

The competitive, variable-pH and kinetic ion exchange experiments ofKMS-1 were also carried out with the batch method at V:m ratio 1000 mL/gand room temperature.

Physical Measurements

Powder patterns were obtained using a CPS120 INEL X-ray powderdiffractometer with Ni-filtered Cu Kα radiation operating at 40 kV and20 mA and equipped with a position-sensitive detector. Samples wereground and spread on a glass slide.

The energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) analyses were performed using aJEOL JSM-6400V scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with a TracorNorthern energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) detector. Data acquisitionwas performed with an accelerating voltage of 25 kV and 40 saccumulation time.

Accurate determination of the composition of KMS-1 and uranyl-exchangedcompounds were performed on diluted aqua regia (HCl:HNO₃=3:1) solutionsof the compounds by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic EmissionSpectroscopy (ICP-AES) using a VISTA MPX CCD SIMULTANEOUS ICP-OESinstrument. The uranium content of the solution after ion-exchange wasanalyzed with Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectroscopy (ICP-MS)using a computer-controlled Thermo Elemental (Waltham, Mass.) PQ ExCellInductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer with a quadruple setup. Tenstandards of uranium in the range of 0.1-8 ppb were prepared by dilutingcommercial (GFS chemical) 1000 ppm solution of uranium. The ²³⁸U isotopewas analyzed. The samples were diluted to lower the concentrations belowthan 8 ppb. All samples (including standards) were prepared in a 3%(ultra-pure) nitric acid (Aldrich) solution with 2 ppb ¹⁵³Eu internalstandard in order to correct for instrumental drift and matrix effectsduring analysis.

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was performed on a Perkin ElmerPhi 5400 ESCA system equipped with a Magnesium Kα x-ray source. Sampleswere analyzed at pressures of between 10⁻⁹ and 10⁻⁸ torr with a passenergy of 29.35 eV and a take-off angle of 45°. All peaks were referredto the signature C1s peak for adventitious carbon at 284.6 eV.

Infrared spectra (IR) in the mid-IR region [4000-400 cm⁻¹, DiffuseReflectance Infrared Fourier Transform (DRIFT) method] were recordedwith a computer-controlled Nicolet 750 Magna-IR series II spectrometerequipped with a TGS/PE detector and silicon beam splitter in 2-cm⁻¹resolution.

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was carried out with a Shimatzu TGA 50.Samples (10±0.5 mg) were placed in quartz crucible. Samples were heatedfrom ambient temperature to 500° C. in a 20 ml/min flow of N₂ or air. Aheating rate of 10° C./min was used and continuous records of sampletemperature, sample weight and its first derivative (DTG) were taken.

Extraction of UO₂ ²⁺ from UO₂ ^(2+Loaded KMS-)1

About 30 mg of UO₂ ²⁺-loaded KMS-1 was treated for 12 h with 10 mL watersolution (pH˜10) containing 2 M Na₂CO₃. The color of the solid becamelighter upon its treatment with the Na₂CO₃ solution. The solid wasisolated by filtration and then dissolved in aqua regia. ICP-AESanalysis on the aqua regia solution indicated that 98% of the original Ucontent of the solid was stripped out.

The removal of UO₂ ²⁺ from UO₂ ²⁺-loaded KMS-1 by using Na₂CO₃ isdescribed by the following equation:

(UO₂)_(0.7)Mn_(0.95)Sn_(2.05)S₆+Na₂CO₃(2M)→Na_(1.4)Mn_(0.95)Sn_(2.05)S₆+Na₄[UO₂(CO₃)₄]

UO₂ ²⁺ ions react with carbonate ions and sodium ions replace the UO₂ ²⁺in the structure of KMS-1.

Regenerated KMS-1 samples showed an UO₂ ²⁺ absorption capacity of100-200 mg U/g.

Extraction of Uranium from Actual Water Samples

Traces of U (20-40 ppb) were added to actual water samples (portablewater, lake water, seawater and contaminated groundwater containingrelatively high organic water). The ability of KMS-1 to absorb U fromthese samples was evaluated. In addition, experiments were done withseawater samples to which no additional uranium was added.

A total of 50 mg of compound KMS-1 was weighted into a 20 ml glass vial.A 5 mL sample of the water sample was added to the vial and the mixturewas kept under magnetic stirring for ˜12 h. The suspension from thereaction was filtered (through filter paper, Whatman No. 1) and thefiltrate was analyzed for the uranium content with Inductively CoupledPlasma-Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES). Each experiment wasperformed in triplicate. The results of these experiments are shown inTable 7.

TABLE 7 Results for the ion-exchange of KMS-1 with actual water samplesintentionally contaminated with traces of uranium V:m Initial U Final UConc. Sample pH (mL/g) Conc. (ppb) (ppb)* % Removal Potable Water 7 10036 0.5-0.7 98.1-98.6 Lake Michigan Water 7.3 100 34.2 0.9-1.1 96.4-97.9Groundwater with high 12 100 22.4 2.6-3   86.6-88.3 organic (10-20 ppm)matter Contaminated Seawater 8.2 100 39 5.3-8.5 78.3-86.5 (Gulf ofMexico) Original Seawater 8.2 100 3.8 0.6-0.9 76.3-84.2 (Gulf of Mexico)*Range of concentrations obtained from three different experiments

It is clear from Table 7 that KMS-1 showed an excellent ability toabsorb low-level uranium from portable and lake water samples. Inaddition, KMS-1 efficiently absorbed uranium from samples with extremelyhigh salt concentrations (seawater) or high organic matter(groundwater). Remarkably, KMS-1 captured 76-84% of the very low uraniumcontent of original seawater samples. This finding makes KMS-1 verypromising for uranium mining from seawater.

Ion-Exchange of KMS-1 with Solutions Containing M²⁺ Ions where M is Zn,Fe, Co

The ion exchange of Fe, Co and Zn is of interest since the isotopes⁵⁹Fe, ⁵⁷Co, ⁶⁵Zn are common radionuclides resulting from corrosionprocesses in radionuclide-bearing waste effluents (Dyer et al., Chem.Mater. 2000, 12, 3798).

A total of 10 mg of compound KMS-1 was weighed into a 20 ml glass vial.A 10 mL sample of a water solution containing the M²⁺ ions (M=Zn, Fe,Co) was added to the vial and the mixture was kept under magneticstirring for ˜12 h. The suspension from the reaction was filtered(through filter paper, Whatman No. 1) and the filtrate was analyzed forthe M+content with Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic EmissionSpectroscopy (ICP-AES). Each experiment was performed in triplicate.

The results of the ion-exchange of KMS-1 with solutions containing M²⁺ions (M=Zn, Fe, Co) are shown in Table 8. KMS-1 was able to removequantitatively (% removal ≧95) these ions (initial concentration˜800-1500 ppb) from water solutions even under acidic conditions (pH˜3).The distribution coefficients were also found to be very high (in therange 10⁴-10⁵ mL/g) for all ions. It is also very important that KMS-1was very effective for absorption of these ions even in traceconcentrations of them and with the simultaneous presence of highconcentrations of various electrolytes. Specifically, experiments wereperformed with portable water to which ˜40-70 ppb of Zn, Fe and Co wereadded. KMS-1 was able to remove >86% of Zn, >98% of Co and >99% of Fefrom the solution. Note also that various cations competitive for ionexchange were present in large excess (e.g. Ca²⁺ was present in˜500-fold excess in relation to Fe²⁺). Still, KMS-1 was very effectivefor the removal of the M²⁺ ions.

TABLE 8 Results for the ion-exchange of KMS-1 with solutions of Zn²⁺,Fe²⁺ and Co²⁺ Initial Final V:m Conc. Conc. % Metal pH (mL/g) (ppb)(ppb)* Removal K_(d)(mL/g) Zn 3 1000 1490 18-80 94.6-98.7 1.8-8.0 × 10⁴Fe 3 1000 809 2-4 99.5-99.7 2.1-3.5 × 10⁵ Co 3 1000 1250 3-6 99.5-99.72.0-3.9 × 10⁵ Zn** 7 1000 41 0.3-6   86.3-99.3 6.3 × 10³-1.4 × 10⁵ Fe**7 1000 73 ≦0.8 ≧99.0 ≧9.5 × 10⁴ Co** 7 1000 59 ≦1.4 ≧97.6 ≧4.1 × 10⁴*range of concentrations obtained from three experiments **results fromreactions with potable water containing a mixture of M²⁺ ions [thesolution also contained Na (8 ppm), Ca(26 ppm), Mg(8 ppm), K(1.7 ppm)]

Adsorption of Cd⁺, Hg⁺ and Pb²⁺ by K_(2x)Mg_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆ (x=0.5-0.95)(KMS-2)

10 mg of KMS-2 was added to a 10 mL solution containing Cd²⁺ or mixtureof Hg²⁺, Pb²⁺ and Cd²⁺ (Table). The mixture was kept under magneticstirring for ˜12 h. The suspension was filtered (through filter paper,Whatman No. 1) and the filtrate was analyzed for their heavy metalcontent with Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectroscopy (ICP-MS).

The results shown in the Table below indicated that KMS-2 was extremelyeffective at absorbing Cd²⁺ even under extremely acidic solution (pH˜0).The experiments with the mixture of three different heavy metal ions(Hg²⁺, Pb^(2+ and Cd) ²⁺) revealed that KMS-2 could lower theconcentration of these ions well-below the acceptable limits fordrinking water. KMS-2 contains Mg which is non-toxic. KMS-2 maytherefore be suitable for the purification of drinking water.

TABLE 9 Results from Hg²⁺, Pb²⁺ and Cd²⁺-exchange experiments with KMS-2(V:m = 1000 mL/g, contact time ~12 h) Final % Hg % Pb % Cd Initial M²⁺M²⁺ removal/K_(d) ^(Hg) removal/K_(d) ^(Pb) removal/K_(d) ^(Cd) (ppb)(ppb) (mL/g) (mL/g) (mL/g) 10728(Cd) 8.9 — — 99.92/1.25 × (pH~0, 10⁶ HCl0.6 M) 400(Hg) 0.6(Hg) 99.84/6.3 × 10⁵ 99.58/2.3 × 10⁵ 99.86/7.1 × 10⁵1020(Pb) 4.3(Pb) 1190(Cd) 1.7(Cd) (pH~2.6) 790(Hg) 0.9(Hg) 99.88/9.0 ×10⁵ 99.40/1.8 × 10⁵ 99.84/6.7 × 10⁵ 450(Pb) 2.7(Pb) 750(Cd) 1.2(Cd)(pH~4.6)

While the foregoing specification teaches the principles of the presentinvention, with examples provided for the purpose of illustration, itwill be appreciated by one skilled in the art from reading thisdisclosure that various changes in form and detail can be made withoutdeparting from the true scope of the invention.

1. A compound of the general formula A_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆, wherein; xis 0.1-0.95; A is selected from the group consisting of Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺,and Rb⁺; and M is selected from the group consisting of Mn²⁺, Mg²⁺,Zn²⁺, Fe²⁺, Co²⁺ and Ni²⁺.
 2. The compound of claim 1, wherein thecompound is a layered compound.
 3. The compound of claim 1, wherein thecompound is capable of intercalation of Cs⁺, Sr²⁺, Hg²⁺, Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺,and/or Ag⁺ ions.
 4. The compound of claim 1, wherein A is K⁺.
 5. Thecompound of claim 4, wherein M is Mn²⁺ or Mg²⁺.
 6. A process comprising:contacting a compound of claim 1 with a solution comprising one or moreions selected from the group consisting of Cs⁺, S²⁺, Hg²⁺, Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺,Ag⁺ and combinations thereof.
 7. The process of claim 6, wherein Cs⁺,Sr²⁺, Hg²⁺, Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺ or Ag⁺ ions are removed from the solution by thecompound.
 8. A process comprising: contacting a compound of claim 1 witha solution comprising one or more ions selected from the groupconsisting of Fe²⁺, Co²⁺, Mn²⁺, Zn²⁺, Ni²⁺ and combinations thereof. 9.The process of claim 8, wherein Fe²⁺, Co²⁺, Mn⁺, Zn²⁺ or Ni²⁺ ions areremoved from the solution by the compound.
 10. A compound of the generalformula H_(2x)M_(x)Sn_(3-x)S₆, wherein; x is 0.1-0.95; and M is selectedfrom the group consisting of Mn²⁺, M²⁺, Zn²⁺, Fe²⁺, Co²⁺ and Ni²⁺. 11.The compound of claim 10, wherein the compound is a layered compound.12. The compound of claim 10, wherein the compound is capable ofintercalation of Hg²⁺ and/or Ag⁺.
 13. The compound of claim 10, whereinthe compound is capable of selectively intercalating Hg²⁺ and/or Ag⁺over Cd²⁺ and/or Pb²⁺.
 14. The compound of claim 10, wherein x is 0.15or 0.2.
 15. A process comprising: contacting a compound of claim 10 witha solution comprising Hg²⁺ and/or Ag⁺ ions.
 16. The process of claim 15,wherein the Hg²⁺ and/or Ag⁺ ions are removed from the solution by thecompound.
 17. A process comprising contacting the compound of claim 1with a solution comprising one or more ions selected from the groupconsisting of UO₂ ²⁺, Th⁴⁺, Pu⁴⁺ and combinations thereof.
 18. Theprocess of claim 17, wherein the solution is an aqueous solution. 19.The process of claim 18, wherein the solution further comprises Na⁺ andCl⁻ ions.
 20. A process comprising contacting the compound of claim 4with a solution comprising one or more ions selected from the groupconsisting of UO₂ ²⁺, Th⁴⁺, Pu⁴⁺ and combinations thereof.
 21. Theprocess of claim 20, wherein the solution is an aqueous solution. 22.The process of claim 21, wherein the solution further comprises Na⁺ andCF⁻ ions.
 23. The compound of claim 4, wherein x=0.5-0.95.
 24. A processcomprising: contacting a compound of claim 1 with a solution comprisingone or more ions selected from the group consisting of gold ions,platinum ions, palladium ions and combinations thereof.
 25. A processcomprising: contacting a compound of claim 10 with a solution comprisingone or more ions selected from the group consisting of gold ions,platinum ions, palladium ions and combinations thereof.